<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE root>
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Russian Journal of Pediatric Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Russian Journal of Pediatric Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Российский вестник детской хирургии, анестезиологии и реаниматологии</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2219-4061</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2587-6554</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Eco-Vector</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">2020</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17816/psaic2020</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="edn">PSEYYC</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>Reviews</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Обзоры</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">The role of radiocontrast agents in the treatment of meconium-related intestinal obstruction in preterm neonates with extremely low birth weight: a review</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Роль рентгеноконтрастных препаратов в лечении обтурационной кишечной непроходимости у недоношенных новорождённых с экстремально низкой массой тела: обзор литературы</trans-title></trans-title-group><trans-title-group xml:lang="zh"><trans-title>水溶性碘造影剂在治疗超低出生体重早产儿胎粪性肠梗阻中的作用：文献综述</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0709-2213</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">6488-3900</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Shvalev</surname><given-names>Fedor M.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Швалев</surname><given-names>Федор Михайлович</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Shvalev</surname><given-names>Fedor M.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><email>aesthetic@list.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9050-3629</contrib-id><contrib-id contrib-id-type="spin">7466-8731</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Tsap</surname><given-names>Natalya A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Цап</surname><given-names>Наталья Александровна</given-names></name><name xml:lang="zh"><surname>Tsap</surname><given-names>Natalya A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>д-р мед. наук, профессор</p></bio><bio xml:lang="zh"><p>MD, Dr. Sci. (Medicine), Professor</p></bio><email>tsapna-ekat@rambler.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Ural State Medical University</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Уральский государственный медицинский университет</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">Ural State Medical University</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">Children’s Regional Clinical Hospital, Yekaterinburg</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">Областная детская клиническая больница, Екатеринбург</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="zh">Children’s Regional Clinical Hospital, Yekaterinburg</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2026-07-24" publication-format="electronic"><day>24</day><month>07</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>26</volume><issue>2</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en"/><issue-title xml:lang="ru"/><issue-title xml:lang="zh"/><fpage>235</fpage><lpage>243</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2026-03-16"><day>16</day><month>03</month><year>2026</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2026-06-02"><day>02</day><month>06</month><year>2026</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2026, Eco-Vector</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2026, Эко-Вектор</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="zh">Copyright ©; 2026,</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Eco-Vector</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Эко-Вектор</copyright-holder><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://eco-vector.com/for_authors.php#07</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://rps-journal.ru/jour/article/view/2020">https://rps-journal.ru/jour/article/view/2020</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Improvements in intensive care for extremely preterm, extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants have significantly improved their survival rates but have also increased the incidence of meconium-related intestinal obstruction. Despite the pathogenetic rationale for the use of water-soluble iodinated contrast agents (WSICA), optimal protocols for their use in ELBW infants remain controversial. This review aimed to summarize and critically evaluate the evidence on the use of WSICA for the diagnosis and treatment of this condition in ELBW neonates. We searched in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, and eLibrary for the period January 2000 to December 2025. We included clinical trials of various designs, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses on very-low-birth-weight and extremely-low-birth-weight preterm neonates who received WSICA for meconium obstruction. The initial search identified 127 records; after abstract review and full-text screening, 40 were included in the final analysis. We analyzed the mechanisms of action of ionic (diatrizoate meglumine, sodium diatrizoate) and non-ionic (iopromide, iopamidol, iohexol) contrast agents, their administration protocols, efficacy, and tolerability. Conservative therapy with WSICA resolves obstruction in 48.6% to 100% of cases. This wide range reflects not method inconsistency but differences in selection criteria and cohort composition: the higher values were obtained with strict selection of patients with confirmed meconium-related obstruction, while the lower values came from cohorts that included exclusively ELBW infants with severe comorbidities. Factors consistently associated with conservative treatment failure include body weight &lt; 700 g, onset after day 10 of life, and marked intestinal dilatation. Intestinal perforation occurs in 5%–9% of cases. Most such episodes are related not to the method itself but to protocol violations — administration of undiluted contrast, use of balloon catheters, and delayed treatment initiation. Direct comparison of Russian (48.6%–65%) and international (54.5%–100%) data is inappropriate due to differences in cohorts, protocols, and outcomes assessed. The use of WSICA is pathogenetically justified and can avoid surgery in a significant proportion of ELBW neonates. This review presents the mechanisms of action and comparative characteristics of WSICA, consistently reproducible factors for conservative treatment failure, and current approaches to minimizing complication risks. Priority areas for future research include prospective multicenter studies aimed at developing an international consensus, prognostic scales to stratify the risk of conservative treatment failure, and long-term neurodevelopmental follow-up.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Совершенствование технологий выхаживания глубоконедоношенных новорождённых с экстремально низкой массой тела (ЭНМТ) способствует значительному росту их выживаемости и одновременно сопровождается ростом частоты обтурационной кишечной непроходимости мекониевого генеза. Несмотря на патогенетическую обоснованность применения водорастворимых йодсодержащих рентгеноконтрастных препаратов (ВЙРП), оптимальные протоколы их применения у новорождённых с ЭНМТ до настоящего времени остаются предметом дискуссии. Цель обзора обобщить и критически оценить данные о применении ВЙРП в диагностике и лечении этой формы непроходимости у новорождённых с ЭНМТ. Проведён обзор научной литературы в базах данных PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, eLibrary за период с января 2000 г. по декабрь 2025 г. Рассматривались клинические исследования различного дизайна, систематические обзоры и метаанализы, посвящённые недоношенным новорождённым с очень низкой и экстремально низкой массой тела, у которых применялись водорастворимые йодсодержащие контрастные препараты для лечения мекониевой обструкции. Первичный поиск выявил 127 публикаций; после анализа аннотаций и полнотекстовой оценки отобрано 40, которые вошли в окончательный список литературы. Проанализированы механизмы действия ионных (диатризоат меглумина, диатризоат натрия) и неионных (йопромид, йопамидол, йогексол) контрастных средств, протоколы их применения, эффективность и переносимость. Консервативная терапия с использованием ВЙРП обеспечивает разрешение обструкции у 48,6–100% детей. Широкий разброс отражает не противоречивость метода, а различия в критериях отбора и составе когорт: верхние значения получены при жёстком предварительном отборе пациентов с подтверждённой мекониевой природой обструкции, нижние — на когортах, включавших исключительно детей с ЭНМТ и тяжёлой сопутствующей патологией. Среди факторов неэффективности консервативного лечения устойчиво воспроизводятся масса тела менее 700 г, манифестация позже 10-х суток жизни и выраженное расширение петель кишечника. Перфорация кишечника возникает в 5–9% случаев. Большинство таких эпизодов связано не с самим методом, а с нарушением протокола — введением неразведённого контраста, использованием баллонных катетеров и поздним началом терапии. Прямое сопоставление российских (48,6–65%) и зарубежных (54,5–100%) показателей некорректно из-за различий в когортах, протоколах и предмете оценки. Применение ВЙРП патогенетически обосновано и позволяет избежать хирургического вмешательства у значительной части новорождённых с ЭНМТ. В обзоре представлены механизмы действия и сравнительные характеристики ВЙРП, устойчиво воспроизводимые факторы неэффективности консервативной терапии и современные подходы к минимизации риска осложнений. Приоритетными направлениями дальнейшей работы являются проспективные многоцентровые исследования с разработкой международного консенсуса, создание прогностических шкал стратификации риска неудачи консервативной терапии и долгосрочная оценка нервно-психического развития.</p></trans-abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="zh"><p>超低出生体重（ELBW）深早产儿存活技术的完善显著提高了其存活率，并同时伴随着胎粪性梗阻发生频率的增长。尽管应用水溶性含碘造影剂（WSCA）有病理生理学依据，但其在ELBW新生儿中的最佳应用方案至今仍是讨论的主题。本综述旨在总结并批判性评估关于在ELBW新生儿中应用WSCA诊断和治疗此种梗阻形式的数据。对PubMed、Scopus、Web of Science、Cochrane Library、eLibrary数据库2000年1月至2025年12月期间的科学文献进行了综述。审查了不同设计的临床研究、系统综述和Meta分析，这些研究涉及应用水溶性含碘造影剂治疗患有极低和超低出生体重的早产儿的胎粪性梗阻。初步检索发现127篇出版物；经过摘要和全文评估后，筛选出40篇纳入最终文献列表。分析了离子型（泛影葡胺、泛影酸钠）和非离子型（碘普胺、碘帕醇、碘海醇）造影剂的作用机制、应用方案、有效性和耐受性。使用WSCA的保守治疗可使48.6-100%的儿童梗阻得到缓解。结果的广泛分散并非反映方法本身矛盾，而是源于入选标准和队列组成的差异：上限值是在严格预先选择确诊为胎粪性梗阻的患者队列中获得的，下限值则是在仅包含ELBW且伴有严重合并症的儿童队列中获得的。 保守治疗无效的因素中，体重低于700克、发病晚于生后10天以及肠道明显扩张是稳定再现的因素。肠穿孔发生率为5–9%。大多数此类事件并非与方法本身有关，而是与违反操作规程有关 — — 注入未稀释的造影剂、使用球囊导管以及治疗开始过晚。直接比较俄罗斯（48.6–65%）和国外（54.5–100%）的指标是不正确的，原因是队列、方案和评估对象存在差异。应用WSCA在病理生理学上有依据，并且能使大部分ELBW新生儿避免手术干预。本综述介绍了WSCA的作用机制和比较特性、保守治疗无效的稳定再现因素以及最小化并发症风险的现代方法。进一步工作的优先方向是进行前瞻性多中心研究以制定国际共识、创建保守治疗失败风险分层预测量表以及长期神经心理发育评估。</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>intestinal obstruction</kwd><kwd>meconium</kwd><kwd>extremely premature infant</kwd><kwd>extremely low birth weight</kwd><kwd>contrast agents</kwd><kwd>therapy</kwd><kwd>review</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>кишечная непроходимость</kwd><kwd>меконий</kwd><kwd>недоношенный новорождённый</kwd><kwd>экстремально низкая масса тела</kwd><kwd>контрастные вещества</kwd><kwd>терапия</kwd><kwd>научный обзор</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="zh"><kwd>肠梗阻</kwd><kwd>胎粪</kwd><kwd>早产儿</kwd><kwd>超低出生体重</kwd><kwd>造影剂</kwd><kwd>治疗</kwd><kwd>科学综述</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><mixed-citation>Karavaeva SА, Kozlov YА. Meconium ileus in preterm infants. Pediatrics. Journal named after G.N. Speransky. 2019;98(2):171–177. doi: 10.24110/0031-403X-2019-98-2-171-177 EDN: ZAOCAH</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>Rook JM, Chervu N, Calkins KL, et al. Meconium-related obstruction and clinical outcomes in term and preterm infants. JAMA Netw Open. 2025;8(2):e2459557. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.59557</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>Emil S, Nguyen T, Sills J, Podilla G. Meconium obstruction in extremely low-birth-weight neonates: guidelines for diagnosis and management. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39(5):731–737. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2004.01.027</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><mixed-citation>Song WS, Yoon HS, Kim SY. Clinical and growth outcomes after meconium-related ileus improved with Gastrografin enema in very low birth weight infants. PLoS One. 2022;17(8):e0272915. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272915</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><mixed-citation>Haiden N, Norooz F, Klebermass-Schrehof K, et al. The effect of an osmotic contrast agent on complete meconium evacuation in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2012;130(6):e1600–e1606. doi: 10.1542/peds.2011-3634</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><mixed-citation>Cho H-H, Cheon J-E, Choi YH, et al. Ultrasound-guided contrast enema for meconium obstruction in very low birth weight infants: factors that affect treatment success. Eur J Radiol. 2015;84(10):2024–2031. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2015.06.006</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><mixed-citation>Kim H-Y, Kim S-H, Cho Y-H, et al. Meconium-related ileus in very low birth weight and extremely low birth weight infants: immediate and one-year postoperative outcomes. Ann Surg Treat Res. 2015;89(3):151–157. doi: 10.4174/astr.2015.89.3.151</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><mixed-citation>De Jesus LE, Lund DP, Vieira H, et al. Meconium ileal obstruction and functional immaturity: review. J Pediatr Surg. 2024;59(12):161935. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2024.161935</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><mixed-citation>Kubota A, Shiraishi J, Kawahara H, et al. Meconium-related ileus in extremely low-birthweight neonates: etiological considerations from histology and radiology. Pediatr Int. 2011;53(6):887–891. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-200X.2011.03381.x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><mixed-citation>Sanders KM, Koh SD, Ward SM. Interstitial cells of Cajal as pacemakers in the gastrointestinal tract. Annu Rev Physiol. 2006;68:307–343. doi: 10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040504.094718</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><mixed-citation>Faussone-Pellegrini M-S, Vannucchi M-G, Alaggio R, et al. Morphology of the interstitial cells of Cajal of the human ileum from foetal to neonatal life. J Cell Mol Med. 2007;11(3):482–494. doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2007.00043.x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><mixed-citation>Friedmacher F, Rolle U. Interstitial cells of Cajal: clinical relevance in pediatric gastrointestinal motility disorders. Pediatr Surg Int. 2023;39:188. doi: 10.1007/s00383-023-05467-1</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><mixed-citation>Lee JY, Namgoong JM, Kim DY, Kim SC. The first stool passage time in extremely low birthweight infants. Hong Kong J Paediatr (New Ser). 2024;29:20–26.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation>Schill EM, Floyd AN, Newberry RD. Neonatal development of intestinal neuroimmune interactions. Trends Neurosci. 2022;45(12):928–941. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2022.10.002</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><mixed-citation>Jenkinson A, Aladangady N, Wellmann S, et al. Pancreatic insufficiency, digestive enzyme supplementation, and postnatal growth in preterm babies. Neonatology. 2024;121(3):283–287. doi: 10.1159/000535964</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><mixed-citation>Shitara Y, Konno R, Yoshihara M, et al. Host-derived protein profiles of human neonatal meconium across gestational ages. Nat Commun. 2024;15:5543. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-49805-w</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><mixed-citation>Sung SI, Ahn SY, Choi S-J, et al. Increased risk of meconium-related ileus in extremely premature infants exposed to antenatal magnesium sulfate. Neonatology. 2022;119(1):68–76. doi: 10.1159/000520452</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><mixed-citation>Garza-Cox S, Keeney SE, Angel CA, et al. Meconium obstruction in the very low birth weight premature infant. Pediatrics. 2004;114(1):285–290. doi: 10.1542/peds.114.1.285</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><mixed-citation>Nakaoka T, Shiokawa C, Nishihara M, et al. Iopamidol enema treatment for meconium obstruction of prematurity in extremely low-birth weight infants: a safe and effective method. Pediatr Surg Int. 2009;25(3):273–276. doi: 10.1007/s00383-009-2334-x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><mixed-citation>Shvalev FM, Tsap NA, Chudakov VB. Staged surgical treatment of intestinal obstruction in infants with extremely low body weight. Russian pediatric journal. 2025;28(S3):25.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><mixed-citation>Pijpers AGH, Eeftinck Schattenkerk LDE, de Vries R, et al. Iodinated contrast-induced hypothyroidism in an infant after enteral contrast enema: a case-report and systematic review. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2025;17(4):494–501. doi: 10.4274/jcrpe.galenos.2024.2023-12-2</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation>Keckler MS, St. Peter SD, Spilde TL, et al. Current significance of meconium plug syndrome. J Pediatr Surg. 2008;43(5):896–898. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2007.12.035</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><mixed-citation>Mazzuoli-Weber G, Schemann M. Mechanosensitivity in the enteric nervous system. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:408. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00408</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><mixed-citation>Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The movements and innervation of the small intestine. J Physiol. 1899;24(2):99–143. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1899.sp000752</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><mixed-citation>Hong KB, Seong IC, Lee KS, et al. Meconium obstruction in very low birth weight infants. Korean J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;14(1):52–58. doi: 10.5223/kjpgn.2011.14.1.52</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><mixed-citation>Noblett HR. Treatment of uncomplicated meconium ileus by Gastrografin enema: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Surg. 1969;4(2):190–197. doi: 10.1016/0022-3468(69)90390-x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><mixed-citation>Kadioglu Simsek G, Arayici S, Buyuktiryaki M, et al. Oral N-acetyl cysteine for meconium ileus of preterm infants. Gynecol Obstet Reprod Med. 2019;25(3):169–173. doi: 10.201613/GORM.2019.930</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B28"><label>28.</label><mixed-citation>Nakaoka T, Nishimoto S, Tsukazaki Y, et al. Ultrasound-guided hydrostatic enema for meconium obstruction in extremely low birth weight infants: a preliminary report. Pediatr Surg Int. 2017;33(9):1019–1022. doi: 10.1007/s00383-016-3986-2</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B29"><label>29.</label><mixed-citation>Bell EF, Acarregui MJ. Restricted versus liberal water intake for preventing morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014:CD000503.pub3. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000503.pub3</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B30"><label>30.</label><mixed-citation>Kim Y-J, Kim E-K, Kim ES, et al. Recognition, diagnosis and treatment of meconium obstruction in extremely low birth weight infants. Neonatology. 2012;101(3):172–178. doi: 10.1159/000330850</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B31"><label>31.</label><mixed-citation>Gopienko MA, Karavaeva SA, Kotin AN, et al. Necrotizing enterocolitis and meconium ileus in preterm infants: differential diagnosis and treatment. Russian Journal of Pediatric Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care. 2023;13(S):39. (In Russ.) doi: 10.17816/psaic.2023 EDN: BSQQUG</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B32"><label>32.</label><mixed-citation>Ivanov SD, Slizovsky GV. Surgical treatment of premature infants with meconium ileus at a regional perinatal center. Russian Journal of Pediatric Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care. 2023;13(S):71. (In Russ.) doi: 10.17816/psaic.2023 EDN: FACIQA</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B33"><label>33.</label><mixed-citation>Ahmet A, Lawson ML, Babyn P, Tricco AC. Hypothyroidism in neonates post-iodinated contrast media: a systematic review. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98(10):1568–1574. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01412.x</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B34"><label>34.</label><mixed-citation>FDA Drug Safety Communication. FDA recommends thyroid monitoring in babies and young children who receive injections of iodine-containing contrast media for medical imaging. U.S. Food and Drug Administration; 2022.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B35"><label>35.</label><mixed-citation>Shaw A. Safety of N-acetylcysteine in treatment of meconium obstruction of the newborn. J Pediatr Surg. 1969;4(1):119–125. doi: 10.1016/0022-3468(69)90192-4</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B36"><label>36.</label><mixed-citation>Stock T, Kamp A-M, Waltz M, et al. Hydrostatic low-volume enemas in infants with birth weight 1000 g or less or gestational age 28 weeks or less: a controlled interventional study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2025;81(1):104–112. doi: 10.1002/jpn3.70055</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B37"><label>37.</label><mixed-citation>Pitcher GJ, Kubota A, Younge NE, et al. Meconium obstruction of prematurity in tiny babies — towards developing an international consensus. J Perinatol. 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41372-025-02395-x</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></article>
